1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to medical compositions and methods, and more particularly to certain disinfectant/antimicrobial preparations and methods for using such preparations i) to disinfect or preserve articles or surfaces, ii) as a topical antiseptic for application to body parts, iii) to prevent or deter scar formation; iv) to treat dermatological disorders such as wounds, burns, ulcers, psoriasis, acne and other scar forming lesions; and v) to treat ophthalmic disorders such as infections, inflammation, dry eye, wound healing, and allergic conjunctivitis.
2. Background of the Invention
A. Antimicrobial and Disinfectant/Antiseptic Agents Used for Disinfection/Antisepsis and Topical Treatment of Wounds, Burns, Abrasions and Infections
The prior art has included numerous antimicrobial agents which have purportedly been useable for disinfection of various articles and/or for topical application to a living being for antisepsis and/or treatment of dermal disorders (e.g., wounds, burns, abrasions, infections) wherein it is desirable to prevent or deter microbial growth to aid in healing. Such topical antimicrobial agents have contained a variety of active microbicidal ingredients such as iodine, mercurochrome, hydrogen peroxide, and chlorine dioxide.
i. Prior Chlorine Dioxide Preparations
Chlorite, a precursor of chlorine dioxide, is known to be useable as a disinfectant for drinking water and as a preservative for contact lens care solutions. However, chlorite exhibits only weak microbicidal activity within a concentration range that is acceptable and safe for topical application to the skin (e.g., 50-1000 parts per million). Thus, chlorite has not been routinely used as an active microbicidal ingredient in preparations for topical application to the skin.
In view of the limited usefulness of chlorite as an antiseptic or topical microbicide, various compositions and methods have been proposed for activation or enhancement of the microbicidal activity of chlorite. Examples of such compositions and methods for activation or enhancement of the microbicidal activity of chlorite are described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,997,616 (describing general activation); U.S. Pat. No. 5,279,673 (describing acid activation) and U.S. Pat. No. 5,246,662 (describing transition metal activation).
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and “stabilized chlorine dioxide” are known to be useable as antiseptics. Chemically, chlorine dioxide is an oxidizing agent which has strong microbicidal activity. Chlorine dioxide is generally regarded as superior even to gaseous chlorine in certain water treatment applications where it is used as to eliminate algae and other organic material and/or to remove odors or tastes. Chlorine dioxide is also effective as a microbicide, for elimination of bacteria, viruses, and microbial spores.
In addition to its use as a microbicide, chlorine dioxide is a highly reactive, unstable radical which is useable as an oxidizing agent in a number of other chemical and biochemical applications. For example, as described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,855,135, chlorine dioxide can be used for (a) oxidation of double bonds between two carbon atoms; (b) oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids (lipids) via double bonds between two carbon atoms; (c) acceleration of hydrolysis of carboxylic anhydrides; (d) oxidation of aldehydes to the corresponding carboxylic acids; (e) oxidation of alcohols; (f) oxidation of amines; (g) oxidation of phenols, phenolic derivatives and thiophenolic compounds; (h) moderate oxidation of hydroquinones; (i) oxidation of amino acids, proteins and polyamides; j) oxidation of nitrates and sulfides; and (k) alteration of the CHO and CH2OH radicals of carbohydrates to produce carboxylic functionality.
Concentrated chlorine dioxide in its liquid or gaseous state is highly explosive and poisonous. As a result, concentrated chlorine dioxide must be handled and transported with great caution. For this reason, it is generally not feasible to dispense pure chlorine dioxide for use as a topical antimicrobial agent or disinfectant. Instead, some antimicrobial or disinfectant preparations have been formulated to provide for “acid generation” of chlorine dioxide. Such acid generation solutions contain a metal chlorite (i.e., a precursor of chlorine dioxide available in powdered or liquid form) in combination with an acid which will react with the chlorite to liberate or release chlorine dioxide. Generally, any acid may be used for acid generation of chlorine dioxide, including strong acids such as hydrochloric acid and sulfuric acid and relatively weak acids such as citric and tartaric acid. Drawbacks or problems associated with these prior chlorine dioxide generating systems include a) the inconvenience of handing two separate containers or chemical components, b) the difficulty of delivering such two-component systems to the intended site of application, and c) the fact that these prior systems are of acid, rather than neutral, pH. Moreover, the prior chlorine dioxide generating systems which utilize acid-induced generation of chlorine dioxide can, if uncontrolled, cause the generation of chlorine dioxide to occur quite rapidly and, as a result, the disinfectant or antimicrobial potency of the solution may be short lived. Increasing the concentration of chlorite and acid within the solution may prolong its disinfectant or antimicrobial shelf life, but such increased concentrations of these chemicals can result in toxicities or (in topical applications) skin irritation. Such increased concentrations may also result in the generation of more chlorine dioxide than is required.
Various methods have been described to limit or control the rate at which chlorine dioxide is produced in “acid generation” solutions. For instance, U.S. Pat. No. Re. 31,779 (Alliger), which is a reissue of U.S. Pat. No. 4,084,747, describes a germicidal composition which comprises a water soluble chlorite, such as sodium chlorite, in combination with lactic acid. The particular composition possesses improved disinfectant properties, properties not attained by using the same composition but replacing the lactic acid with other acids such as phosphoric acid, acetic acid, sorbic acid, fumaric acid, sulfamic acid, succinic acid, boric acid, tannic acid, and citric acid. The germ killing composition is produced by contacting an acid material containing at least 15% by weight of lactic acid with sodium chlorite in aqueous media. The methods disclosed of disinfecting and sanitizing a germ-carrying substrate, such as skin, include either application of the germ-killing composition, or application of the reactants to provide in situ production thereof. Also, U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,134 (Kross) describes acid induced generation of chlorine dioxide from a metal chlorite wherein the chlorite concentration is limited by the amount of available chlorous acid. In particular, the Kross patent describes a method for treating dermal disorders wherein a first gel, which comprises a metal chlorite, is mixed with a second gel, which comprises a protic acid. The chlorite ions present in such solution as chlorous acid purportedly comprise no more than about 15% by weight of the total chlorite ion concentration in the composition, and the mixture of the two gels purportedly generates chlorine dioxide over an extended time of up to 24 hours.
Other prior patents have purported to describe the use of “stabilized” chlorine dioxide as a means of chlorine dioxide generation. The term stabilized chlorine dioxide refers to various compositions in which the chlorine dioxide is believed to be held in solution in the form of a labile complex. The stabilization of chlorine dioxide by the use of perborates was disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 2,701,781 (de Guevara). According to the de Guevara patent, an antiseptic solution of stabilized chlorine dioxide can be formed from an aqueous solution of chlorine dioxide and an inorganic boron compound with the boron compound and the chlorine dioxide being present in the solution as a labile complex. The chlorine dioxide, fixed in this stable condition, is an essential ingredient of the antiseptic solution. The de Guevara patent discloses that the chlorine dioxide may be introduced into the compositions either by in situ generation or it may be generated externally and introduced into the solution, as by bubbling the chlorine dioxide gas into the aqueous solution. Various methods may be employed for the external production of the chlorine dioxide, such as reaction of sulfuric acid with potassium chlorate or the reaction of the chlorate with moist oxalic acid. Alternatively, chlorine dioxide can be generated in situ by reaction of potassium chlorate and sulfuric acid. Note that whether the chlorine dioxide is produced in situ or externally, it is essentially an acid-induced liberation of the chlorine dioxide from potassium chlorate.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,317,814 (Laso) describes stabilized chlorine dioxide preparations for treatment of burns in humans. Aqueous mixtures of perborate stabilized solutions of chlorine oxides, such as chlorine dioxide, in combination with glycerin are described for topical application to burned areas and may also be administered by oral application for treatment of burns. The aqueous solutions of perborate stabilized chlorine oxides are disclosed as being prepared by mixing with water the following: sodium chlorite, sodium hypochlorite, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, an inorganic perborate, and a peroxy compound, such as sodium perborate. Thus, the solutions prepared in accordance with the Laso patent contain chlorine dioxide, hypochlorite and peroxy compounds as strong oxidizing agents and appear to utilize acid activation of the chlorine dioxide. The Laso patent states that the methods disclosed therein resulted in an immediate subsidence of burn related pain in many cases, that healing was rapid and characterized by an absence of infection or contraction, and that the burn scars were smooth and resembled normal tissue, thus eliminating the need for plastic surgery in certain cases. However, long term storage and stability are issues with the aqueous solutions described in the above-identified Laso patent, because such mixtures tend to generate chlorine dioxide very quickly, thus diminishing the long term stability of such mixtures.
U.S. Pat. No. 3,271,242 (McNicholas et al.,) describes stabilized chlorine dioxide solutions which are formed by combining chlorine dioxide gas with an aqueous solution containing a peroxy compound, and subsequently heating the solution to a temperature which is high enough to drive off all free peroxide, but low enough not to destroy the chlorine dioxide. McNicholas et al., states that temperatures “much below” 70 degrees C. are ineffective to drive off the free peroxide in the solution and that temperatures should not exceed 92 degrees C. because at higher temperatures the chlorine dioxide will be driven off. McNicholas further states that, although not “entirely understood,” it was believed that heating of the solution to drive off free peroxide was necessary because any free hydrogen peroxide allowed to remain in the solution would release the chlorine dioxide from the solution.
ii. Antibiotic Preparations
Antibiotic compounds have also been commonly used for the therapeutic treatment of burns, wounds, and skin and eye infections. While antibiotics may provide an effective form of treatment, several dangers are often associated with the use of antibiotics in the clinical environment. These dangers may include but are not limited to: (1) changes in the normal flora of the body, with resulting “superinfection” due to overgrowth of antibiotic resistant organisms; (2) direct antibiotic toxicity, particularly with prolonged use which can result in damage to kidneys, liver and neural tissue depending upon the type of antibiotic; (3) development of antibiotic resistant microbial populations which defy further treatment by antibiotics.
B. Difficult-to-treat Dermal Disorders Other than Wounds, Burns, Abrasions and Infections
While even minor wounds and abscesses can be difficult to treat in certain patients and/or under certain conditions, there are well known dermal disorders such as psoriasis and dermal ulcerations, which present particular challenges for successful treatment.
i. Psoriasis
Psoriasis is a noncontagious skin disorder that most commonly appears as inflamed swollen skin lesions covered with silvery white scale. This most common type of psoriasis is called “plaque psoriasis”. Psoriasis comes in many different variations and degrees of severity. Different types of psoriasis display characteristics such as pus-like blisters (pustular psoriasis), severe sloughing of the skin (erythrodermic psoriasis), drop-like dots (guttate psoriasis) and smooth inflamed lesions (inverse psoriasis).
The cause of psoriasis is not presently known, though it is generally accepted that it has a genetic component, and it has recently been established that it is an autoimmune skin disorder. Approximately one in three people report a family history of psoriasis, but there is no pattern of inheritance. There are many cases in which children with no apparent family history of the disease will develop psoriasis.
The occurrence of psoriasis in any individual may depend on some precipitating event or “trigger factor”. Examples of “trigger factors” believed to affect the occurrence of psoriasis include systemic infections such as strep throat, injury to the skin (the Koebner phenomenon), vaccinations, certain medications, and intramuscular injections or oral steroid medications. Once something triggers a person's genetic tendency to develop psoriasis, it is thought that in turn, the immune system triggers the excessive skin cell reproduction.
Skin cells are programmed to follow two possible programs: normal growth or wound healing. In a normal growth pattern, skin cells are created in the basal cell layer, and then move up through the epidermis to the stratum corneum, the outermost layer of the skin. Dead cells are shed from the skin at about the same rate as new cells are produced, maintaining a balance. This normal process takes about 28 days from cell birth to death. When skin is wounded, a wound healing program is triggered, also known as regenerative maturation. Cells are produced at a much faster rate, theoretically to replace and repair the wound. There is also an increased blood supply and localized inflammation. In many ways, psoriatic skin is similar to skin healing from a wound or reacting to a stimulus such as infection.
Lesional psoriasis is characterized by cell growth in the alternate growth program. Although there is no wound at a psoriatic lesion, skin cells (called “keratinocytes”) behave as if there is. These keratinocytes switch from the normal growth program to regenerative maturation. Cells are created and pushed to the surface in as little as 2-4 days, and the skin cannot shed the cells fast enough. The excessive skin cells build up and form elevated, scaly lesions. The white scale (called “plaque”) that usually covers the lesion is composed of dead skin cells, and the redness of the lesion is caused by increased blood supply to the area of rapidly dividing skin cells.
Although there is no known cure for psoriasis, various treatments have been demonstrated to provide temporary relief in some patients. However, the effectiveness of the currently accepted treatments for psoriasis is subject to considerable individual variation. As a result, patients and their physicians may have to experiment and/or combine therapies in order to discover the regimen that is most effective. The currently available treatments for psoriasis are often administered in step-wise fashion. Step 1 treatments include a) topical medications (e.g., topical steroids, topical retinoids), b) systemic steroids, c) coal tar, d) anthralin, e) vitamin D3, and sunshine. Step 2 treatments include a) phototherapy (e.g., ultraviolet radiation), b) photochemotherapy (e.g., a combination of a topically applied radiation-activated agent followed by radiation to activate the agent) and c) combination therapy. Step 3 treatments include a) systemic drug therapies such as methotrexate, oral retinoids and cyclosporin and b) rotational therapy.
ii. Dermal Ulcerations
Dermal ulcerations are known to occur as a result of pressure, wear, or primary/secondary vascular disorders. Dermal ulcerations are generally classified according to their etiology, as follows:
a. Decubitus/Pressure Ulcers
A decubitus ulcer or pressure sore is a lesion caused by unrelieved pressure resulting in damage of the underlying tissue. Decubitus ulcers usually develop over a bony prominence such as the elbow or hip. The unrelieved pressure, along with numerous contributing factors, leads to the skin breakdown and persistent ulcerations.
b. Venous Ulcers
Venous ulcers may result from trauma or develop after chronic venous insufficiency (CVI). In CVI, venous valves do not close completely, allowing blood to flow back from the deep venous system through the perforator veins into the superficial venous system. Over time, the weight of this column of blood causes fluid and protein to exude into surrounding tissues, resulting in swollen, hyperpigmented ankles, tissue breakdown, and ulceration. Venous ulcers may be shallow or extend deep into muscle.
c. Arterial Ulcers
Leg ulcers also can develop in patients with arterial insufficiency caused by arterial vessel compression or obstruction, vessel wall changes, or chronic vasoconstriction. Smokers face an especially high risk of arterial disease because nicotine constricts arteries, encourages deposits of atherosclerotic plaque, and exacerbates inflammatory arterial disease (Buerger's disease) and vasoconstrictive disease (Raynaud's disease or phenomenon). Arterial ulcers, caused by trauma to an ischemic limb, can be very painful.
d. Diabetic Ulcers
Arterial insufficiency can be the cause of a nonhealing ulcer in a patient with diabetes. However, most diabetic ulcers result from diabetic neuropathy—because the patient cannot feel pain in his foot, he is unaware of injuries, pressure from too-tight shoes, or repetitive stress that can lead to skin breakdown.
There remains a need in the art for the formulation and development of new disinfectants and topically applicable preparations for the treatment of dermal disorders, such as wounds, burns, abrasions, infections, ulcerations, psoriasis and acne.
C. Contact Lens Soaking and Disinfection.
Whenever a contact lens is removed from an eye, it should be placed in a soaking and disinfecting solution until it is worn again. Soaking and disinfecting solutions have the following functions:                1. Assist in cleaning the lens of ocular secretions after the lens is removed form the eye;        2. To prevent eye infections by a bacterial contaminated lens; and        3. To maintain the state of hydrated equilibrium, which the lens achieves while it is being worn.        
D. Contact Lens Cleaning.
During lens wear mucus material, lipids and proteins accumulate on contact lenses, making lens wear uncomfortable due to irritation, burning sensation, and redness. Accordingly, vision becomes blurry. To alleviate the discomforting problem, the soft or rigid contact lenses should be taken out of the eye, to be cleaned and disinfected regularly, using an enzymatic cleaner and a disinfecting solution. One of the serious complications associated with soft lenses can be a Giant Papillary Conjunctivitis (GPC). It is believed to be that the occurrence of the giant papillary conjunctivitis is mostly due to an inflammatory reaction associated with soft contact lens complication. This is almost always caused by protein deposits on contact lenses. GPC produces symptoms ranging from asymptomatic to itching, upper eye-lid edema, red eye, mucoid discharge, progressive contact lens intolerance. The in-the-eye cleaner of the present invention effectively cleans the protein deposits and maintains corneal epithelial cells healthy by keeping the corneal surface from microbial infection as well as by supplying molecular oxygen. Thereby, it provides convenience and benefits to both soft and rigid contact lens wearers.
E. Treatment of Ophthalmic Disorders.
i. Dry Eye
Dry eye is a syndrome in which tear production is inadequate or tear composition is inappropriate to properly wet the cornea and conjunctiva. A variety of disorders of the ocular tears causes sensations of dryness of the eyes, discomfort of presence of a foreign object to occur in the eye. In most instances, the tear film loses its normal continuity and breaks up rapidly so that it cannot maintain its structure during the interval between spontaneous blinks. All of those tear abnormalities may have multiple causes. Perhaps the most common form of dry eye is due to a decreased aqueous component in the tears. Untreated dry eye can be further deteriorated to produce more severe epithelial erosion, strands of epithelial cells, and local dry spots on the cornea, which can be further complicated by microbial infection. In its mild form, however, a feeling of dryness and irritation of the eye can be solved with artificial tears. Thus, artificial tear solution which has a broad spectrum antimicrobial activity with corneal lubricating property, can provide not only comfort but also beneficial effects on recovery of damaged corneal surface.
ii. Allergic Conjunctivitis
Airborne or hand borne allergens usually produce allergic conjunctivitis due to IgE-mediated hypersensitivity reaction. It presents itching, tearing, dry and sticky eyes, including lid-swelling, conjunctival hyperemia, papillary reaction, chemosin, and ropy mucoid discharge. The presence of hyaluronic acid in the tear, which is included in the formulation of artificial tear, would protect corneal surface from contacting the allergens. The broad spectrum antimicrobial agent of the present invention keeps the corneal surface from bacterial infection and also maintains the corneal epithelial cells healthy by supplying molecular oxygen. Thus, it provides beneficial effects on the eyes sensitive to allergens.
iii. Bacterial Invasion
Bacterial keratitis is one of the leading causes of blindness in the world. In the United States, an estimated 30,000 cases occur annually, with the popularity of contact lens wear having contributed to a rising incidence in the developed world. Statistical investigation indicates that about 30 of every 100,000 contact lens wearers develop ulcerative keratitis annually in the United States, thus making the disease a significant public health issue in view of potential blindness that can occur. While eyelids, blinking of the eyelids, and corneal and conjunctival epithelial cells provide barriers to microbial invasion, one or more of these defense mechanisms can become compromised. Such compromises can include lid abnormalities, exposure of the corneal surface, poor tear production, epithelial problems, medication toxicity, trauma, and incisional surgery. Ocular manifestations of bacterial keratitis are found in staphylococcus and streptococcus infections that tend to cause severe infiltration and necrosis which over time can lead to perforation. Pseudomonal keratitis tends to progress rapidly. This organism produces destructive enzymes, such as protease, lipase, and elastase, and exotoxins, which result in necrotic ulceration and perforation. Serratia keratitis starts as a superficial para-central ulcer, with the secretion of exotoxins and protease which can produce aggressive ulceration and perforation. In order for the bacterial keratitis to become established, microbial adhesions must bind to host cell receptors. Once this attachment has occurred, the destructive process of inflammation, necrosis, and angiogenesis can ensue.
Present treatment for bacterial keratitis relies primarily upon the use of broad spectrum antibiotic therapy. Such antibiotics include sulfonamides, trimethaprin, and quinolones. Also included are beta-lactams, penicillins, cephalasporins, aminoglycosides, tetracyclines, chloramphenicol, and erythromycin. While such antibiotics are in wide spread use, they can also become misused where antibiotic resistant pathogens emerge. Additionally, antibiotics only halt the proliferation of bacteria, but do not inhibit the activity of protease enzymes, endotoxins, or exotoxins. As is therefore apparent, a significant need is present for a bactericidal agent that addresses the proliferation of not only bacteria, but also protease enzymes, endotoxins and exotoxins.